COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

Author: Maria Bullard

What is Communicative Competence?

The notion of communicative competence was originally devised by Hymes in the early 1970s to redress what many scholars at the time perceived as the inadequacy of linguistic competence to satisfy the demands of interpersonal communication (Davies, 2003). Although sufficient for limited forms of communication, linguistic competence or grammatical proficiency, signifies only part of the communication skills needed within a social context. In fact, Davies (2003) defines communicative competence as “represent[ing] the articulation of linguistic competence in situation; that is the practice of interaction and the recognition of appropriacy” (p. 117).

Consequently, proficient communicative competence cannot be achieved without understanding the culture. In addition to grammatical competency, communicative competence requires the following proficiencies:

• Sociolinguistic competency – knowing what language forms are appropriate according to the situation, topic or relationship between the people involved in a conversation.
• Discourse competency – knowing how to put phrases and sentences together to construct a whole conversation, speech, letter, etc.
• Strategic competency– knowing how to recognize and repair communication breakdowns such as misunderstandings, and how to work around gaps in language knowledge. That is, having the language tools to explain concepts and correct misunderstandings.

In other words, the distinguishing feature of communicative competence is interaction. However, as underscored in one of John Gray's famous books on relationships, Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus, interaction between two people who speak the same language does not always translate into communicative competence! It is no surprise, then, that interaction between or among people from different cultures can be more difficult still. 

The following video illustrates the culture shock experienced by a group of immigrants to the U.S., highlighting the importance of cultural understanding for effective interaction.

While watching the video, note the immigrants’ apprehension at the prospect of having to deal with differences in social customs and interpersonal relationships, in addition to the practical differences regarding everyday life. Note also the reaction of the Americans (host culture) as they observe or are confronted with the “foreign” behavior of the Sudanese immigrants.

A major point that emerges from this video is that although the Sudanese men have sufficient linguistic proficiency to communicate effectively in English, the lack of (reciprocal) cultural understanding causes confusion and apprehension in the immigrants, as well as significant misperceptions within the host culture.

Clearly, foreign language learners need to master both linguistic competence and intercultural communicative competence (ICC). Fantini (2005) explains ICC in the following quotation: 

     "One definition of ICC is that it is the complex of abilities needed to perform effectively and appropriately when

     interacting with others who are linguistically and culturally different from oneself.  Whereas 'effective' usually reflects

     one’s own view of one’s performance in the LC2 (i.e., an 'etic' or outsider’s view of the host culture); 'appropriate' relates

     to how one’s performance is perceived by one’s hosts (i.e., an 'emic' or insider’s view). These perceptions often differ,

     yet they are instructive when compared and contrasted because they arise from differing cultural approaches to the

     same situation."

     Knowing when to use the formal versus the informal version of the pronoun "you" in Romance languages such as Italian is a practical example that highlights the importance of understanding culture. In Italy, the "appropriacy" of using "Lei" (formal) or "tu" (informal) depends exclusively on the social relationship between the speaker and the addressee. There is no communicative difference between the two forms nor is there any linguistic need to distinguish between the two--both are "effective"--but knowing which form is "appropriate" to the situation is indicative of the speaker's sociolinguistic competency. Although lack of communicative competence skills is not necessarily a reflection of an individual's intellect or other life skills, it nonetheless influences significantly how a person is perceived by the host culture. 

What Does Communicative Competence "Look Like" in the Foreign Language Classroom?      

Language learning should not be divested of cultural context because the social purpose of language is interaction. In fact, Davies (2003) suggests that language learning is analogous to cultural understanding. To help foreign language students achieve their ultimate goal of interaction with native speakers, the instructor should go beyond teaching linguistic competence and shift the focus to communicative competence. Accordingly, a content-based whole language approach that incorporates authentic materials illustrating a variety of social situations can help students acquire the cultural norms and appropriate linguistic forms necessary for communicative competence.  

According to Larsen-Freeman and Anderson (2011), the whole language approach is viewed as a social process in which learning is ideally pursued through collaboration between teacher and students and among students. Specifically, linguistic forms are not taught in abstract but are combined with some type of purposeful use of the target language.

For example, students may participate in an activity of role-play after viewing an authentic video—that is, a video produced by and for an audience of the target language—representing a situation of social interaction that is of interest to the students.  While the role-play activity is based on the video, students do not mimic the characters but construct their own situation of social interaction, collaboratively negotiating language and meaning. 

Another whole language collaborative technique, process writing helps students improve written communicative competence as original texts are revised in response to peer feedback (Larsen-Freeman and Anderson, 2003). Yet another technique incorporates literature-based activities in the whole language classroom; Adair-Hauck (1996) suggests that using stories that reflect cultural heritage, such as legends and fairy tales, can facilitate the understanding of cultural nuances pertaining to the target language.  

Compared to traditional bottom-up instruction, Adair-Hauck (1996) concludes that the whole language approach is preferable because it “encourages learners to interact in meaningful activities, [in addition to] incorporate[ing] a cultural and humanity component so lacking in many elementary/intermediate language programs” (p. 260).

What Do Foreign Language Teachers Need To Know About Communicative Competence?

Davies (2003) notes that most cultures have what he refers to as a Standard Language in addition to non-codified standard languages such as dialects. Consequently, the author aptly distinguishes between individual native speakers and the concept of an ideal Standard Language speaker who embodies all the knowledge and information relative to the cultural background of the language. “What Standard Languages do (just as with law and religion) is to provide a commonality but not a homogeneity. This is why it makes sense to speak of norms rather than of rules which the Standard Language member accepts” (p. 146). Returning to the example of the Italian formal and informal "you," although the norms suggest which form is appropriate according to social hierarchy, there is no homogeneity in defining all interpersonal relationships across the cultural spectrum. For instance, in one geographical region or cultural sub-group it may be appropriate to address one's mother-in-law formally, yet within another group or region it is appropriate to be informal. Simply stated, communicative competence is evaluated in relation to the cultural context. The notion of contextual competence also provides instructors with a realistic framework within which they can design lesson plans with specific competency goals, in addition to devising appropriate authentic assessments. 

Although authenticity is often difficult to define, because communicative competence is relative to each distinct situation, materials also are considered authentic within a specific context rather than in an absolute sense. For example, job applications have a number of standard features such as the inclusion of the writer’s work history and educational achievements that are common to all applications for employment. At the same time, the appropriate linguistic forms for writing a job application as administrative assistant to a Wall Street banker will differ somewhat, or significantly, to an application for a job as administrative assistant at the local hip-hop radio station. While both types of job applications are authentic, they are also different because each one is appropriate to—or demonstrates communicative competence within—it’s specific situation.     

Similarly, while many social and cultural norms are commonly recognized by the majority of the target language citizens, there may be significant differences in some localized habits and mores. Because languages and cultures are continuously changing and evolving, when choosing to incorporate authentic materials in the classroom the language teacher should ensure, through constant and diverse exposure to the target culture, that s/he is familiar with the most current norms of both the language and the culture.

When frequent travel to the the target language country is not practical or possible, internet technology can provide immediate and often free access to authentic materials and virtual cultural experiences. The following PowerPoint presentation offers an overview of the benefits and advantages of CALL for both teachers and students, and includes links to further resources; the related handout notes contain information that elaborates on the content of the slides.

Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Advantages of CALL in the Foreign Language Classroom 

CALL.pptx  CALL Handout.pdf

Lesson Plans Using Authentic Materials

The following video focuses on guidelines for choosing appropriate authentic materials and constructing authentic activities. In addition, examples of activities involving realia, authentic printed texts and authentic images, illustrate how authentic materials may be used in the classroom. Although specific to English Language Programs, the guidelines and examples are also relevant and adaptable to foreign language instruction.

How Does Communicative Competence Concern Foreign Language Students?

Ideally, foreign language learners would achieve communicative competence by living and studying in the target language country to immerse themselves in both the language and the culture. However, because most people do not have the economic means and/or the time for such an experience, students should be encouraged to make use of the various internet technology solutions that can give them access to an extensive array of authentic materials, as well as to the tools necessary to engage in a virtual cultural immersion that can facilitate communicative competence.

Finally, because not all language learners have the same communicative competence goals, Sterling (2012) suggests that students develop individual language plans that identify goals and set realistic expectations. In addition, language plans may include items such as a selection of learning strategies that are best suited to the individual learner, and different technology tools that can help students reach their goals.

Although Davies (2003) notes that in all but exceptional cases L2 learners do not acquire native proficiency because it is impossible for them to fill “large experiential gaps (such as childhood in the language)” (p. 102), by tying linguistic competence to a specific context, in addition to setting realistic learning goals, communicative competence is brought within easier reach of foreign language learners.

References and Further Reading

Adair-Hauck, B. (1996). Practical whole language strategies for secondary and university-level students. Foreign Language Annals,

29(2), 253-262. Retrieved from http://www.actfl.org/publications/foreign-language-annals

Davies, A. (2003). The native speaker: Myth and reality. Tonawanda, NY: Multilingual Matters.

Fook, C.Y. & Sidhu, G.K. (2010). Authentic and pedagogical strategies in higher education. Journal of Social Sciences, 6(2),

153-161. http://thescipub.com/jss.toc

Gilmore, A. (2011). “I prefer not text”: Developing Japanese learners’ communicative competence with authentic materials.  

Language Learning, 61(3), 786-819. Retrieved from http://www.lib.usf.edu

Lee, Y. (2006). Towards respecification of communicative competence: Condition of L2 instruction or its objective? Applied

Lingustics, 27(3), 349-376. doi: 10.1093/applin/aml011

Schwarzer, D. (2001). Whole language in a foreign language class: From theory to practice. Foreign Language Annals, 34(1), 52-29.

Retrieved from http://www.actfl.org/publications/foreign-language-annals 

Sterling, S. (2012). Learning strategies for world languages. Clear News, 16(2), 1-5. Retrieved 

from http://clear.msu.edu/clear/newsletter/fall2012.pdf

Image Sources:

http://www.lanartco.com/blog/uploaded_images/international-communication-746201.jpg

http://kunalashar.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/communication.jpg

http://www.soleilpublishing.com/soleilpublishing.com/assets/images/products/BU-059.jpg