COLLABORATION     

Authored by Ahmet Colak & Hatime Ciftci

Retrieved from www.google.com  Google Images

Definition

Collaboration, which is synonymous with cooperative learning, involves students working together to maximize their own and each other's learning. Students aim to achieve shared learning goals by working together (Johnson & Johnson, 2009; Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011; Macaro, 1997). Collaboration can be either among students or between students and a teacher but the fundamental aspect of it is to assist each student in advancing through his or her own zone of proximal development (Warschauer, 1997). The ZPD refers to the distance between what the learners could achieve by themselves and what they could achieve when assisted by others (Vygotsky, 1978). Such a difference between independent performance and aided performance, which is the performance of learners cooperating with more knowledgeable others, will reveal the results of future performance (Van der Veer & Valsiner, 1993).

One of the underlying theoretical perspectives that guided cooperative, collaborative learning is social interdependence theory. There are two types of social interdependence: positive (cooperation) and negative (competition). Positive interdependence is existent once individuals realize that they can reach their goals only with a collaborative link to other individuals by promoting each other’s efforts to achieve the goals. However, negative interdependence involves an opposite interaction and individuals competitively fail to obtain their goals (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). This is not the scope of this current wiki here. The following video summarizes five elements of cooperative learning:

Five Elements of Cooperative Learning

Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Izk76RZO4j0&feature=player_embedded

What does collaboration "look like" in the classroom?

Collaboration in the classroom looks like active student involvement, group work, contingent peer and teacher feedback, scaffolding, and co-construction. In an ESL/EFL grammar class, collaboration could be the interaction between each other and the teacher as well as the usage/meaning notes in the book by using the guiding questions in groups. In an ESL/EFL reading class, collaboration could be a jigsaw reading activity where the learners co-construct their understanding of the text and the strategies to use. In an ESL/EFL writing class, collaboration could be peer feedback (Jacobs et al., 1998; Mendoca & Johnson, 1994; Paulus, 1999), or graduated and contingent teacher feedback in their joint activity of writing (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994). 

The use of peer feedback is strongly supported by the theoretical stances such as process writing, collaborative learning theory, Vygotsky’s ZPD, and interactionist theories of L2 acquisition (Hansen & Lui, 2004). The research studies claiming that peer feedback has a great deal of positive effects in second/foreign language writing classes show that it gives more control and autonomy to learners because they are actively involved in the feedback process rather than passively rely on teachers’ feedback, thus “reconceptualize their ideas in light of their peers’ reactions” (Mendoca & Johnson, 1994, p.746). It also improves learners’ critical reading and analysis skills (Chaudron, 1984), and encourages them to focus on their intended meaning by taking into consideration others’ views that lead to the development of ideas (Mangelsdorf, 1992). Using peer feedback in ESL/EFL writing classes brings a genuine sense of audience into the writing classroom (Keh, 1990). Therefore, it is believed that research on peer feedback is likely to produce useful results in how it might lead to greater independence. 

Collaboration redefines the role of teachers in the classrooms. Jacobs (2006) explains that compared to teacher-fronted instruction, collaboration requires more skill to be a facilitator, or a guide. As a skilled facilitator, teachers need to help students to get prepared to fulfill the tasks assigned to their group. This means teachers have to know what procedures will work best. They also have to know the content and the language required for the tasks they assign to the groups. Jacobs (2006) also adds that during the collaborative activity, teachers need to monitor their students carefully in order to be able to help them understand better, overcome difficulties, and use the target language. The following video exemplifies 'Silent Card Shuffle' activity as a collaborative learning tool. While watching the video, remember to reflect on the questions below:

In what ways did you find the activity depicted in the video useful?

How would you exploit this activity to teach, for instance, reading or writing?

Do you benefit from such an activity in your classes? Would you recommend any other  activities you make use of for cooperative learning? 

Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YGimtrwVF1g&feature=player_embedded

Why do teachers need to know about collaboration?

Teachers first need to know how to facilitate collaboration in the class so that they can teach it to the students. In other words, teachers should be aware of their roles, certain strategies to scaffold how to collaborate, and design tasks or activities accordingly. It is important to know about this key word for mainly two reasons; first, teachers’ beliefs and knowledge inform their classroom practice (Woods, 1996) and second language acquisition or learning is not only an individual cognitive but also a socially situated process. Therefore, if teachers know the role of social interaction in language learning, they would find it meaningful to create opportunities for collaborative learning in the class.  

Second, teachers need to know what collaboration in the classroom will look like to students. Appending collaboration onto a lesson plan will not bring students together as a group or facilitate collaborative learning. Instead, teachers can use collaboration as a bridge between themselves and students. As Kane & Harms (n.d.) state, "Students feel that instructors who facilitate, rather than teach/preach, are instrumental in the learning process. Group work, class discussion, encouraging participation in a nonjudgmental environment, and helping students seek answers rather than providing them are all ways of leading students to learn" (p. 20). This is a prime example of Constructivism in the classroom, and has been proven effective in multiple studies.

How does collaboration concern students?

According to Brookes and Grundy (1990), many students believe that teacher-fronted instruction creates the best learning environment. They believe so because they either are unfamiliar with group activities or are likely to have had unsuccessful group work experiences. In order to raise students' awareness, and help them see the benefits, students need to be informed about the rationale for the group work activities and collaboration. Doing this will contribute to students' taking initiative for more independent work and peer interaction, both of which will lead to more productive learning.

Collaboration and Technology

Collaboration can be encouraged through the use of technology. Students can be encouraged to do projects using Multi-User Virtual Environments such as Second Life, where they can collaborate with the people even from different countries successfully across time zones (Leonard, Withers, & Sherblom, 2011). They can also be encouraged to use Web 2.0 networking tools, where students can better understand how words and grammar are used to in context; and can construct their pieces of writing together by helping each other in writing, and by providing affective support by making flattering comments (Lee, 2010). For example, Wikis, which feature a loosely structured set of pages, are linked in multiple ways to each other and to Internet sources. Because of an open editing system, anyone can edit any page, using a simple set of formatting commands. It is not necessary to have knowledge of HTML. The main goal of Wiki sites is to become a shared repository of knowledge, with the knowledge base accumulating over time (Godwin-Jones, 2003).

Further reading about collaboration (Parenthetical citations) 

Aljaafreh, A., & Lantolf, J. P. (1994). Negative feedback as regulation and second language learning in the zone of proximal development. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 465-483.

Brookes, A., & Grundy, P. (1990). Writing for study purposes.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chaudron, C. (1984). The effects of feedback on students’ composition revisions. RELC Journal, 15(2),1-15.

Godwin-Jones, R. (2003). Emerging technologies-blogs and wikis: Environments for on-line collaboration. Language Learning & Technology, 7(2), 12-16. 

Hansen, J. G. & Liu, J. (2004). Guiding principles for effective peer response. ELT Journal, 59(1), 31-38.

Jacobs, G. M. (2006). Issues in implementing cooperative learning. In S. G. McCafferty, G. M. Jacobs & A. C. D. Iddings (Eds.), Cooperative learning and second language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University      Press. 

Jacobs, G. M., Curtis, A., Braine, G., & Huang, S. (1998). Feedback on student writing: Taking the middle path. Journal of Second Language Writing, 7(3), 307-17.

Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2007). Cooperation and the use of technology. In J. M. Spector & M. D. Merrill (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp.401-424).  New York: Taylor & Francis.

Kane, K., & Harms, J. (N.D.) Getting started: A guide to collaboration in the classroom. Retrieved from http://www.cte.hawaii.edu/publications/Collab_web.pdf

Keh, C. (1990). Feedback in the writing process: a model and methods for implementation. ELT Journal, 44(4), 294-303.

Larsen-Freeman, D., & Anderson, M. (2011). Techniques and principles in language teaching. New York: Oxford University Press.

Lee, L. (2010). Exploring wiki-mediated collaborative writing: A case study in an elementary Spanish course. CALICO Journal, 27(2), 260-276.

Leonard, L., Withers, L. A., & Sherblom, J. C. (2011). Collaborating virtually: using second life to teach collaboration. Communication Teacher, 25(1),  42-47. 

Macaro, E. (1997). Target language, collaborative learning and autonomy. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. 

Mangelsdorf, K. (1992). Peer response in the ESL classroom: What do the students think? ELT Journal, 46(3), 274-93. 

Mendoca, C. O., & Johnson, K. E. (1994). Peer review negotiation: Revision activities in ESL writing instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 28(4), 745-69.

Paulus, T. M. (1999). The effect of peer and teacher feedback on student writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 8(3), 265-89.

Van der Veer, R., & Valsiner, J. (1993).  Understanding Vygotsky: A quest for synthesis. Cambridge: Blackwell.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society : The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Warschauer, M. (1997). Computer-mediated collaborative learning: Theory and practice. The Modern Language Journal, 81, 470-81.

Woods, D. (1996). Teacher cognition in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.